Psilocybin Mushrooms: From Past to Future

Co-Author's note: For those following, you know that I have been using an AI generator to create the images for these posts. Well, I have been playing around with ChatGPT-4 Plus, with the additions of plugins, and I wanted to test the ability to research and co-write papers. This is an article that I co-wrote with ChatGPT, edited, expanded in parts, changed some of the language. Color me fascinated. If you do find mis-information here, please let me know. This is an experiment. That said, you will find the extensive list of citations at the end, each with their own links.

     The use of psychedelic substances, particularly mushrooms, has a deep-rooted history in Mesoamerican cultures, dating back to pre-Columbian times. Mushroom stones, believed to be associated with ritualistic use of hallucinogenic mushrooms, have been found in Mesoamerican archaeological sites and are estimated to be from around 3000 BC.
     The indigenous cultures of Mesoamerica, including the Olmec, Zapotec, Maya, and Aztec civilizations, used a variety of psychoactive substances in their religious ceremonies and healing rituals. Among these substances were peyote, hallucinogenic mushrooms known as teonanacatl (Psilocybe spp.), and the seeds of ololiuhqui (Turbina corymbosa). These substances contain mescaline, psilocybin, and lysergic acid amide, respectively, which are all compounds known to induce altered states of consciousness.
     The Maya, for instance, consumed balche, a mixture of honey and extracts of Lonchocarpus, in group ceremonies to achieve intoxication. They also used ritual enemas with psychoactive substances to induce states of trance.
The skin of the toad Bufo spp., which contains bufotoxins with hallucinogenic properties, was used during the Olmec period. Other plants like jimson weed (Datura stramonium), wild tobacco (Nicotiana rustica), water lily (Nymphaea ampla), and Salvia divinorum were also used for their psychoactive effects. Even today, local shamans and healers in Mesoamerica continue to use these psychoactive substances in their ritual ceremonies.

     In the early 20th century  the use of Psilocybe mushrooms was deeply rooted in the indigenous cultures of Mexico. The Mazatec, Zapotec, Mixtec, and Nahua people used these mushrooms in their religious and healing rituals. The mushrooms were known by various names, including "teonanácatl," which translates to "flesh of the gods." It seems that the use and practices associated with their use developed quite separately from other cultures around the world; but while the indigenous cultures of Mexico, have a rich history of Psilocybe mushroom use, they are not alone in their reverence for these potent fungi. Across the globe, from the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Rome, and Greece, to the tribal societies of South America, the use of these mushrooms has been woven into the fabric of human history.
    In South America, the Aztec Indians referred to these mushrooms as "teonanacatl," or "god's flesh," and incorporated them into their religious and healing rituals, much like their counterparts in Mexico. The Aztecs were not alone in their use of these mushrooms, as evidence suggests that other pre-Columbian societies also recognized and utilized the psychoactive properties of Psilocybe mushrooms.
     Across the Atlantic, in the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Rome, and Greece, there is evidence to suggest a fondness for psychedelic fungi. While the specifics of their use are less well-documented, it is clear that these advanced societies recognized the potential of these mushrooms and incorporated them into their cultural practices.
    In the caves of Tassili, Algeria, prehistoric rock art suggests the use of Psilocybe mushrooms in religious rituals dating back 6,000 years. These depictions, believed to represent the transformative effects of the mushrooms on the user, provide a fascinating glimpse into the ancient relationship between humans and these potent fungi.
     In the Americas, the first half of the 20th century saw the mushrooms largely confined to their traditional cultural contexts. However, things began to change in the 1950s. In 1955, R. Gordon Wasson, a vice president of J.P. Morgan and Company, and his wife, Valentina Pavlovna, a pediatrician–and an avid mycophile from Russia–traveled to Mexico and participated in a Mazatec mushroom ceremony led by the shaman María Sabina. This was a pivotal moment that brought the Psilocybe mushrooms to the attention of the wider world.
     Wasson's account of his experiences, published in Life Magazine in 1957, sparked widespread interest in the mushrooms. This led to an influx of researchers and enthusiasts to Mexico, eager to study and experience the effects of these "magic mushrooms." 
     María Sabina, the Mazatec shaman who introduced the Western world to the spiritual use of psilocybin mushrooms, is now globally recognized as a significant figure in the countercultural movement and psychedelic research. Her legacy, however, is a complex tapestry woven with threads of reverence, controversy, and exploitation.
In her homeland of Mexico, Sabina is celebrated as one of the country's greatest poets. Her chants, spoken or sung under the influence of the sacred mushrooms, were first translated from her native Mazatec into English and only later into Spanish. Despite her humble origins and lack of formal education, Sabina's profound wisdom and spiritual insight have earned her a place among Mexico's literary luminaries. Her verses, believed to be spoken through her by the mushrooms, continue to resonate with audiences worldwide, transcending cultural and linguistic barriers.
     Roger Heim, a French mycologist, accompanied R. Gordon Wasson on one of his trips to Mexico where he witnessed the mushroom ceremonies conducted by María Sabina. Heim identified the species of magic mushrooms used in these ceremonies and sent samples to Albert Hofmann for further analysis. However, sources do not explicitly state that María Sabina provided the mushrooms or spores directly to Heim.
     Heim began successfully cultivated psilocybian mushrooms from Mexico during the late 1950s in Paris, along with Roger Cailleux. It's worth noting that Heim is now known for his work on hallucinogenic fungi, including Psilocybe, and he had a significant role in the study and understanding of these mushrooms. He was involved in identifying several species of Psilocybe mushrooms and was instrumental in the isolation and identification of the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin.
     There are accounts of Albert Hofmann visiting María Sabina and providing her with synthesized psilocybin. María Sabina reportedly confirmed that the effects of the synthesized psilocybin were similar to those of the Psilocybe mushrooms used in her ceremonies. However, there is mostly anecdotal sources, and do not provide a direct quote or detailed account of this event.
     However, Sabina's global fame came at a high personal cost. The influx of Western tourists seeking the "magic mushrooms" disrupted the social dynamics of her small Mazatec community and led to her ostracization. Despite the hardships she faced, Sabina's influence has endured and even grown in the years following her death.
     Today, Sabina's legacy is being reevaluated and reclaimed within the context of her indigenous identity and the political struggles of her people. She is seen not just as a spiritual guide, but also as a symbol of indigenous resilience and wisdom in the face of cultural appropriation and exploitation.
     In the contemporary psychedelic revival, Sabina's teachings continue to inspire researchers and enthusiasts alike. However, there is a growing recognition of the need to honor and respect the indigenous roots of these practices. The story of María Sabina serves as a poignant reminder of the intertwined histories of cultural exchange, exploitation, and resilience that have shaped the global psychedelic movement.

     Meanwhile, in the scientific community, the period from 1955 and through the 1960s was of intense research into Psilocybe mushrooms. French mycologist Roger Heim identified several species of Psilocybe mushrooms and was able to cultivate them in the laboratory. Albert Hofmann, the Swiss chemist who first synthesized LSD, isolated and identified the psychoactive compounds psilocybin and psilocin from Heim's cultivated mushrooms.
Psilocybe mexicana, one of the species identified by Heim, became particularly significant. It was from this species that Hofmann first isolated psilocybin. Moreover, P. mexicana is known to form sclerotia, a hardened mass of mycelium that can survive in unfavorable conditions. These sclerotia, also known as "magic truffles," contain the same psychoactive compounds as the mushrooms.
     By the end of the 20th century, the use of Psilocybe mushrooms had spread far beyond the indigenous cultures of Mexico. They had become a part of the global counterculture, and their psychoactive compounds were being studied for their potential therapeutic applications. Despite the legal restrictions placed on them in many countries, the mushrooms continued to be used for their mind-altering effects and potential spiritual insights.
In Mexico, the traditional use of Psilocybe mushrooms continues to this day, alongside the more recent recreational and therapeutic uses. The mushrooms have become an integral part of the country's cultural heritage and a subject of ongoing scientific interest.
     As we entered the 21st century, the study and understanding of Psilocybe species continued to evolve, particularly in North America. The rise of the internet and the sharing of information led to a greater awareness and knowledge about these species.
     In the early 2000s, the study of Psilocybe species was still largely confined to academic and scientific circles. However, the internet began to change this, with websites such as Shroomery providing a platform for enthusiasts to share information and experiences. This led to a greater understanding of the distribution and characteristics of different Psilocybe species across North America.
     In the Pacific Northwest, particularly in the states of Oregon and Washington, species such as Psilocybe azurescens, Psilocybe baeocystis, and Psilocybe cyanescens were found in abundance. These species are known for their potent psychoactive properties. Psilocybe ovoideocystidiata was also found in various states across the East Coast.
In the Midwest and Southern states, species such as Psilocybe cubensis, known for its golden cap, was commonly found, particularly in cow pastures after rain. Psilocybe caerulipes, also known as the blue-foot mushroom, was also found in various states.
     In Canada, Psilocybe species were found across the country, from British Columbia to Quebec. Species such as Psilocybe baeocystis and Psilocybe cyanescens were commonly found in British Columbia, while Psilocybe quebecensis was found in Quebec.
     In Mexico, the tradition of using Psilocybe mushrooms continued into the 21st century. Species such as Psilocybe mexicana, Psilocybe cubensis, and Psilocybe zapotecorum were found across various states. In the state of Oaxaca, a hotspot for Psilocybe mushrooms, species such as Psilocybe caerulescens, known for its use in traditional ceremonies, and Psilocybe mexicana were found.
     As we journeyed into the 21st century, a renewed fascination with Psilocybe mushrooms began to take root, driven by their intriguing psychoactive properties and potential therapeutic benefits. This resurgence of interest has fostered a deeper understanding and appreciation of these extraordinary fungi. However, their classification as Schedule I substances and the subsequent illegality have shrouded them in a veil of taboo since the late 20th century and into the 21st. This has often led individuals to embark on their first psychedelic journey without a comprehensive understanding of what to expect. With Psilocybe mushrooms readily available on the black market and even legal in some jurisdictions, including the state of Colorado, it's high time we address the pressing question: how does one navigate an experience that is so profoundly subjective and yet so alien to the uninitiated mind?
     During our back and forth to create this essay, even ChatGPT gave the disclaimer: “It's important to note that the legality of possession and use of Psilocybe mushrooms varies by region, and they should only be used responsibly and with a thorough understanding of their effects [empahsis added].” But without the many years of study, there are no “official” experts out there to guide new experiences. This often leaves the newly curious to seek information from a variety of source. Essentially, understanding the effects is completely a personal affair. From my own personal experience, our profound cellular knowledge we have, as curious creatures evolved from previous curious creatures, humans do have an internal guide with this conscious synthesis that effectively holds your mental hand, provided you are in a safe space, of sound mind, and you pay enough attention. There is something there for everyone. A true medicine for the people.
     The potential therapeutic benefits of Psilocybe mushrooms, which offer a unique form of consciousness-access, have the ability to treat a variety of mental ailments that are often treated with limited guidance. However, the commercialization of these mushrooms has resulted in a shift in their narrative. Once stigmatized, these mushrooms are now gaining recognition for their potential benefits, attracting the attention of Wall Street and spurring new research and investment in psychedelics. Given the small amount of the drug needed to treat patients under current guidelines, it is likely that the only viable corporate model is to ensure access for everyone. As a result, intense competition for public attention has already begun.
     In the early 2000s, the psychedelic industry began to gain traction. Companies such as Compass Pathways, MindMed, and Atai Life Sciences emerged, focusing on the development of psychedelic-based therapies for mental health disorders. By 2021, the psychedelic drugs market was projected to reach $6.85 billion by 2027, indicating a significant surge in interest and investment.
     However, this burgeoning industry is not without its controversies. The commercialization of these substances has raised ethical concerns, particularly around the rights of indigenous communities who have used these plants for centuries. The Nagoya Protocol, an international agreement aimed at ensuring fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, has been invoked to protect indigenous rights. However, the implementation of this protocol in the context of the psychedelic industry remains a complex issue.
The Nagoya Protocol, an international agreement aimed at the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources, has been a significant point of discussion in the realm of psychedelic substances, particularly psilocybin mushrooms.
     The Protocol was designed to ensure that the benefits derived from the use of genetic resources are shared with the countries and communities where these resources originate. However, the enforcement in the context of psychedelics has been a complex issue.
     A NP compliance committee has been established to promote adherence to its provisions and address cases of non-compliance. The committee has urged parties to expedite the adoption and implementation of their Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) legislative, administrative, or policy measures, and institutional arrangements. However, the effectiveness of these measures in the context of psychedelics, particularly psilocybin mushrooms, is still under scrutiny.
     Indigenous communities, who have been the traditional custodians of many psychedelic substances, have raised concerns about the implementation of the Nagoya Protocol. They argue that the protocol does not adequately protect their traditional knowledge and practices, and does not ensure that they receive a fair share of the benefits derived from the use of their genetic resources.
     In response to these criticisms, there have been calls for a more inclusive and equitable approach to the implementation of the Nagoya Protocol. This includes recognizing and going beyond simply respecting the rights of indigenous communities, but listening to them and ensuring that they are involved in decision-making processes related to the use of their genetic resources1. Addressing these issues will require a concerted effort from all stakeholders, including governments, researchers, and indigenous communities.
     Looking forward, the psychedelic industry is, nevertheless, likely to continue its growth, driven by ongoing research and increasing societal acceptance of these substances as therapeutic tools. However, the challenge lies in ensuring that this growth is accompanied by ethical practices that respect and acknowledge the cultural heritage of these substances.
     The rise of corporate psychedelics has been met with a mix of enthusiasm and concern. On one hand, companies like Compass Pathways, led by CEO George Goldsmith, are pioneering the development of synthetic psilocybin treatments for mental health conditions such as treatment-resistant depression. Goldsmith envisions a future where psilocybin-based drugs are widely available by 2025, leading to a "Cambrian explosion" of innovation in the psychedelics space.

    However, this rapid commercialization of psychedelics has raised ethical questions. Critics argue that the corporatization of psychedelics could lead to the commodification and overuse of these substances, potentially causing harm to individuals and communities. Furthermore, there are concerns about the accessibility and affordability of these treatments once they hit the market.
     Florian Brand, CEO of Atai Life Sciences, acknowledges the challenges facing the industry, including issues of scalability and reimbursement. However, specific statements or quotes from CEOs of major investors, such as Twitter, indicating potential problems for indigenous communities were not readily available in the sources accessed.
Ehave, Inc., a healthcare analytics provider with interests in the psychedelic and mental health sectors, is another player in this space. CEO Ben Kaplan highlights the company's achievements in advancing their business plan, including the acquisition of Rejuv IV, a mobile IV therapy provider that became Ketadash, a subsidiary of Ehave. Ketadash provides mobile ketamine treatments for treatment-resistant depression, anxiety, PTSD, and other conditions. However, the company's approach to ethical concerns, particularly in relation to indigenous communities, was not explicitly addressed in the letter to shareholders.
     To conclude, while the corporate psychedelics industry is growing and innovating at a rapid pace, it is crucial for these companies to address the ethical concerns that have been raised. This includes respecting the cultural heritage and rights of indigenous communities who have been using these substances for centuries, ensuring the accessibility and affordability of treatments, and implementing safeguards to prevent misuse.
     The future might see a more integrated approach to psychedelic use, combining traditional indigenous knowledge with modern scientific research. This could lead to the development of more effective and culturally sensitive therapeutic practices–though surely as humans we also need to entertain the idea of entertainment and deep spiritual growth that also comes from interactions with this medicine. Being forced to wait until we have a mental breakdown or worse to be given “permission” to alter one’s consciousness by use of a naturally growing fungi seems pretty ridiculous when you look at it like from a human rights standpoint.
     Privatization and centralization of production have invariably caused enough harm globally, and we should not imagine a different result using the same corporate grasping. It is crucial that not just the rights of indigenous communities are protected, but that their voices are elevated to at the very least an equal footing and merit in discussions, and that they are included in the decision-making processes and profits related to the use and commercialization of these substances and species.
     Clearly, the story of Psilocybe mushrooms is far from over. As we move forward, it is essential to navigate this path with respect for the cultural heritage of these substances and a commitment to ethical practices. The potential of Psilocybe mushrooms as therapeutic tools is immense, but it is crucial that their commercialization does not overshadow the rights and knowledge of the indigenous communities who have long understood their value, nor privatize the experience as one only accessible to those who have the capital to play in that sphere.
     As we look to the future, we may see a world where the therapeutic use of Psilocybe mushrooms is widely accepted and integrated into mainstream healthcare, not to mention the potential of legalized mushrooms for recreational and personal journeys, as they are used today globally, despite their illegality. However, this future should also be one where the indigenous communities who have stewarded these funga for centuries are recognized and respected, their knowledge valued and their rights protected, and this means listening to them to learn what that means.
The story of Psilocybe mushrooms is a testament to the power of nature and the wisdom of traditional cultures. It is a story that is still being written, and one that we all have a role in shaping. As we continue to explore the potential of these remarkable fungi, let us do so with an attitude of a humble servant for these creature, as we unravel their history, their cultural significance across the globe-then and now–and listen to the indigenous communities who have known their value for centuries, for the lessons we may learn to change our trajectory.

Citations

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